Critical Issue: Using Scientifically Based Research = to Guide Educational Decisions

From: Subject: Critical Issue: Using Scientifically Based Research to Guide Educational Decisions Date: Wed, 3 Sep 2008 18:12:37 -0500 MIME-Version: 1.0 Content-Type: multipart/related; type="text/html"; boundary="----=_NextPart_000_0000_01C90DF0.A5286590" X-MimeOLE: Produced By Microsoft MimeOLE V6.00.2900.5579 This is a multi-part message in MIME format. ------=_NextPart_000_0000_01C90DF0.A5286590 Content-Type: text/html; charset="utf-8" Content-Transfer-Encoding: quoted-printable Content-Location: http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/envrnmnt/go/go900.htm =EF=BB=BF Critical Issue: Using Scientifically Based Research = to Guide Educational Decisions

3D"Visit

Critical Issue:
Using Scientifically Based Research to = Guide=20 Educational Decisions

This Critical Issue was written by Jonathan Margolin, Program = Associate,=20 Learning Point Associates, and Beth Buchler, Educational Consultant,=20 New-Learning Educational Services.

3D"Pathways

3D""=20 ISSUE: The No Child Left Behind Act = requires=20 educational programs and practices to be based on scientifically based = research.=20 The federal policy impacts practicing educators in the curriculum areas = of=20 reading, mathematics, and science. It also impacts instructional = strategies,=20 professional development, parent involvement, and all federally funded = programs.=20 The intent of these requirements is for teachers and administrators to = improve=20 their schools based on scientific knowledge as well as professional = wisdom.

This Critical Issue focuses on how educators can use scientifically = based=20 research to inform teaching practices, curriculum decisions, and = schoolwide=20 programs. It is intended to guide teachers and administrators toward=20 understanding, locating, and applying scientifically based research to = improve=20 student learning.

3D""=20 OVERVIEW: Quality teachers ask tough = questions in=20 their classrooms. They want their students to probe, investigate, and = inquire=20 about what they are learning and doing. Today, teachers and = administrators are=20 also being asked tough questions about the evidence for the = effectiveness of the=20 educational programs and methods they select for use in their = classrooms. The=20 reasons for this change are the provisions of the No Child Left Behind = (NCLB)=20 Act of 2001 that require federally funded educational programs to be = built on=20 scientifically based research (SBR). For example, a school using Title I = funds=20 to support the introduction of a new literacy approach must investigate = the=20 scientific evidence upon which that program is based. As a result, the = way=20 schools make critical decisions about curriculum and instruction will = change.=20 For this reason, it is important to understand the motivation behind = these=20 requirements.=20

Why Is SBR Important?

The trend toward scientifically based educational programs and = practices has=20 been a long time coming. For example, the standards of the National = Staff=20 Development Council (NSDC, 2004) state that the content of staff = development=20 should provide educators with "research-based instructional strategies." = The=20 reason for this standard is eloquently expressed as follows:

"The charisma of a speaker or the attachment of an = educational=20 leader to an unproven innovation drives staff development in far too = many=20 schools. Staff development in these situations is often subject to the = fad du=20 jour and does not live up to its promise of improved teaching and = higher=20 student achievement. Consequently, it is essential that teachers and=20 administrators become informed consumers of educational research when=20 selecting both the content and professional learning processes of = staff=20 development efforts." (NSDC,=20 2004)

These words, referring to professional development, apply just as = well to all=20 of the other decisions about curriculum, materials, and instructional = methods.=20 The imperative for incorporating SBR is dictated not only by federal = law, but by=20 common sense as well. With budgets tighter and district demands greater, = educators need to be able to evaluate the evidence for the effectiveness = of=20 costly programs and materials. SBR is the "gold standard" for such = evidence=20 (Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy, 2003). Therefore, educators will = need to=20 care about SBR and how it impacts success in their school. They will = need to=20 learn and understand SBR in order to improve learning in the classroom = and=20 integrate SBR into their educational modus operandi. It is important to = have a=20 clear understanding of the scope of the federal requirements before = exploring=20 SBR.

NCLB Programs That Require SBR

Let us consider the different programs whose monies must be spent on = programs=20 supported by SBR. The first four "titles" of the NCLB Act (2002) contain = the=20 majority of the references to SBR that are of broad interest; they are=20 summarized here:

Title I directs funds toward improving the academic achievement of = the=20 disadvantaged. Title I funds are directed toward improving basic = programs=20 operated by school districts, Reading First and Early Reading First,=20 Comprehensive School Reform, Even Start, and improving school = libraries. All=20 of these funds must be directed toward programs and materials that are = grounded in SBR.
Title II directs money toward preparing, training, and recruiting=20 high-quality teachers and principals. It also provides grants for math = and=20 science partnerships. These funds may support only those interventions = that=20 have evidence of effectiveness in improving student = performance.
Title III addresses language instruction for = limited-English-proficient=20 and immigrant students. It mandates that all curricula for teaching = these=20 students be tied to SBR criteria.
Title IV, also known as 21st Century Schools, funds programs that = promote=20 safe and drug-free schools and communities, as well as 21st Century = Community=20 Learning Centers. Both kinds of programs need SBR supporting their=20 effectiveness.

This is not a comprehensive list, and details for each of the = programs vary.=20 Consult the NCLB=20 Desktop Reference (Office of the Under Secretary, 2000) for more = information=20 on specific programs.

How the NCLB Act Defines SBR

Scientifically based research is defined in the NCLB legislation as = "research=20 that involves the application of rigorous, systematic, and objective = procedures=20 to obtain reliable and valid knowledge relevant to education activities = and=20 programs" (NCLB, 2002). In this section, we attempt to explain the law's = definition of SBR in plain language.

To begin, the point of SBR requirements is to ensure that federal = funds are=20 being spent on "what works"=E2=80=94programs that are likely to make a = strong impact on=20 student achievement (Comprehensive School Reform Program Office, 2002). = What=20 sorts of research, then, constitute scientific evidence of = effectiveness? When=20 examining this question, Feuer, Towne, and Shavelson (2002) noted that = "No=20 method is good, bad, scientific, or unscientific in itself: Rather, it = is the=20 appropriate application of method to a particular problem that enables = judgments=20 about scientific quality" (p. 8). The NCLB legislation, along with = guidelines=20 from the U.S. Department of Education, defines scientific research for = the goal=20 of determining what works in educational programs and practices. For = example,=20 scientific evidence for a literacy program would need to demonstrate=20 convincingly that the program causes an improvement in reading. = The=20 NCLB legislation describes criteria for research that meets this lofty=20 standard.

Six Criteria for SBR

The NCLB Act presents a detailed definition of SBR focused on six = criteria.=20 An explanation and discussion of each of these criteria = follows.

1.=20 Research that employs systematic, empirical methods that draw on = observation or=20 experiment. The defining principle of scientific evidence is = systematic=20 empiricism. Empiricism is "watching the world," relying on careful = observation=20 of events to make conclusions (Stanovich & Stanovich, 2003, p. 33).=20 Systematic empiricism requires doing those observations in a careful = manner in=20 order to answer a specific question. In the realm of educational = research,=20 systematic empiricism requires an exact definition of the intervention = and=20 program being studied, and a careful measurement of its outcomes.=20

Example: Following a state referendum restricting "bilingual = education" in California, the popular media reported a dramatic = improvement in=20 the academic achievement of nonnative English speakers in a school = district that=20 switched to an English-only curriculum. This result was touted as = evidence for=20 the superiority of English-only instruction over bilingual instruction. = However,=20 this report did not constitute scientific evidence, because no one had=20 systematically compared the two differing curriculum approaches. In = fact, upon=20 careful analysis, it became known that the school did not even have a = bilingual=20 curriculum to start with. Subsequent studies that precisely defined the = key=20 features of bilingual education and evaluated specific educational = outcomes can=20 be called systematic and empirical (see Krashen, 2002).

This criterion requires quantitative research, the hallmark of which = is the=20 use of numerical measurement of student outcomes. In order to know if = one method=20 truly caused an improvement, it is necessary to quantify the improvement = in=20 student performance. For example, studies about the effectiveness of = certain=20 mathematics instructional practices measure the improvement in = mathematics=20 ability, perhaps by quantifying changes over time in the percentage of = math=20 problems that students are able to answer.

2. Research that involves rigorous data analyses that are = adequate to=20 test the stated hypotheses and justify the general conclusions = drawn.

It is necessary to analyze data from a study using appropriate = statistical=20 procedures that can support the conclusions. Failure to apply the = appropriate=20 statistical procedures calls the results into question. Reputable = research does=20 not issue strong claims for the effectiveness of a program or practice = based on=20 modest differences or gains in student achievement. It is necessary to = use=20 statistics to determine whether the results were significant and = important.

Example: Research on the influence of class size on literacy = achievement compared the reading ability of students in classrooms with = 12 to 15=20 students to classrooms with 20 to 25 students. The students from the = smaller=20 classes scored higher on reading achievement tests. The researchers = calculated=20 the statistical significance of this difference to determine whether it = was=20 likely that such a result could have been possible by chance.

A great deal of technical expertise is necessary to understand = whether=20 statistical procedures have been performed and reported adequately. = Fortunately,=20 the publication of research in reputable sources and the replication of = the=20 results by different researchers give the layperson some degree of = confidence=20 that the research claims are above board. On a superficial level, = quality=20 research reports basic statistical information such as the = following:

Sample size and representativeness. The sample refers to = the=20 selection of participants in the study. The sample must be = representative of=20 the population of people about whom the researchers wish to learn. If = a=20 researcher wishes to demonstrate an intervention for improving reading = skills=20 among youth in poverty, the sample must be drawn from youth in = poverty.=20
Statistical procedures to interpret data. Research that = compares=20 the effectiveness of an intervention almost always reports statistical = tests=20 such as t-tests or analyses of variance (ANOVAs). A study lacking such = information is unlikely to provide convincing proof of = effectiveness.
Supplementary descriptive statistics. Quality research = provides=20 numbers that describe the results, such as means and standard=20 deviations.
Significance. Statistical significance is expressed as = the=20 probability that the observed differences could have happened by = chance. When=20 this is very low (i.e., .05 or less), the results are deemed = statistically=20 significant.
Effect size. The effect size is a description of how = large an=20 effect the treatment had. It should be reported in real-world terms, = such as=20 percentage of children reading at or above grade level (Coalition for=20 Evidence-Based Policy, 2003). The size of an effect indicates its = importance.=20 Some effects can be statistically significant, but of such a small = magnitude=20 that they are unimportant.

3. Research that relies on measurements or observational methods = that=20 provide reliable and valid data across = evaluators and observers, across multiple measurements and observations, = and=20 across studies by the same or different investigators.

Scientific research needs to use reliable methods of collecting data. = A=20 reliable testing instrument will give you the same result each time you = use it=20 on the same person or situation. Whenever a study evaluates students in = a manner=20 that relies on human judgment, as with assessments of writing ability, = it is=20 essential for the research to report interrater reliability, an = index=20 of how closely the different raters agree. Studies that rely on testing=20 instruments typically establish test-retest reliability by=20 administering it to the same group of people twice. The main point is = that SBR=20 documents the reliability of its procedures for data collection.

Data about a particular outcome (e.g., mathematics achievement) are = valid if=20 they truly reflect that outcome and not some unrelated factor.

Example: Research that examines the effect of art = education on=20 mathematics achievement should use a measure that reflects that = outcome and is=20 not influenced by unrelated outcomes. For example, if the test of this = outcome=20 contains questions that are difficult to understand, then the test may = measure=20 verbal ability as well as mathematics achievement. Its validity would = then be=20 in doubt.

4. Research that is evaluated using experimental or=20 quasi-experimental designs in which individuals, entities, = programs, or=20 activities are assigned to different conditions and with appropriate = controls to=20 evaluate the effects of the condition of interest, with a preference for = random-assignment experiments, or other designs to the extent that those = designs=20 contain within-condition or across-condition controls.

Experimental design. This criterion = specifies that=20 in order to be deemed scientific by the NCLB Act, research needs to = conform to=20 an experimental or quasi-experimental design. The reasoning is that it = is=20 difficult to understand the effectiveness of any educational approach = without=20 comparing it to a different approach. For this reason, this criterion = states=20 that evidence for the effectiveness of any practice needs to include a=20 comparison group to show what would happen if that practice had = not=20 been used. An ideal comparison group is similar in every important way = that=20 could influence the outcome of interest. Because the comparison group = allows=20 researchers to control for the influence of external factors unrelated = to the=20 intervention, it is sometimes called a control group. By contrast, the = group of=20 people (or schools) that uses the practice under investigation is = typically=20 called the treatment or experimental group.

Example: Consider an educational program to decrease = tobacco use=20 among teenagers. Suppose that the promoters of the program tout its=20 effectiveness by noting that a school that began using this program in = 2002=20 reported a decrease in smoking from that point on. Is this convincing=20 evidence? According to NCLB guidelines, no. Because there are so many = other=20 variables that affect the smoking rate, it is not possible to identify = any one=20 cause. After all, perhaps an increase in the cigarette tax=E2=80=94or = a national=20 advertising campaign to deter tobacco use=E2=80=94caused the decline. = To make a claim=20 about the effectiveness of the educational intervention, researchers = would=20 need to compare the students at the school that implemented the = program to=20 students at a similar school that did not implement = it.

This criterion makes an additional statement about comparison groups = and=20 treatment groups: The best way to assign people to these groups in = through a=20 random process. Random assignment is the hallmark of the = experimental=20 design. When researchers randomly assign students (or classrooms or = schools) to the experimental or control groups, any given participant in = the=20 study has an equal chance of ending up in the control group or the = treatment=20 group. The purpose of this procedure is to make sure that the two groups = are as=20 equivalent as possible in terms of the background characteristics that = could=20 influence the outcome variables. Any preexisting differences between the = comparison and the treatment group can confound=E2=80=94that is, = spoil=E2=80=94the results.=20 Random assignment eliminates, for the most part, the concern that the = control=20 group comprises people (or schools) that are fundamentally different = from the=20 treatment group.

Example: Continuing the tobacco education example, if the = students=20 in the treatment school were from poorer families than students at the = comparison school, they might be more impacted by an increase in the = tobacco=20 tax. This preexisting difference would account for a decrease in the = use of=20 tobacco in the school where the anti-tobacco program is implemented. = However,=20 suppose the researchers randomly assigned 20 schools, all of which = were=20 similar in their major demographic traits, to either the treatment or = control=20 condition. If the treatment group reported a substantial decrease in = student=20 tobacco use in comparison to the control group, one could be highly = confident=20 that the education program worked.

Practical and ethical concerns with experimental=20 design. Random assignment is not always possible, = for=20 both practical and ethical reasons. As a practical matter, the = administration of=20 a school district might insist on deciding which of its elementary = schools adopt=20 a new curriculum. It would therefore not be possible to randomly assign = schools=20 (or classrooms or students) to particular treatment or control groups to = study=20 the effectiveness of this curriculum. Other practical dilemmas abound = but are=20 beyond the scope of this discussion. As an ethical matter, random = assignment=20 often is not an appropriate way to determine which students in a school = benefit=20 from an experimental approach.

Quasi-experimental design. Because of these = concerns, most educational research does not utilize a pure experimental = design,=20 but rather a quasi-experimental design. One such approach is to = select=20 a comparison group that closely matches the control group in all = relevant=20 factors. For example, a study of an intensive professional development = program=20 might select five schools to participate in the program, and five other = similar=20 schools to serve as comparison schools. Although this sounds very much = like an=20 experiment, it lacks the key factor of random assignment; the schools = that=20 received the program may have volunteered or been selected to = participate. For=20 this approach to be considered SBR by NCLB measures, the five comparison = schools=20 would need to closely match the treatment group in all of the factors = that could=20 influence the intended outcome of the program (e.g., demographic = composition,=20 academic achievement, and timing of evaluation).

It must be noted that this criterion has generated much controversy = due to=20 what some perceive as its exclusion of legitimate methods of scientific = research=20 such as qualitative designs and other nonexperimental approaches. These=20 objections are discussed in the Different=20 Points of View section.

5. Research that ensures that experimental studies are presented = in=20 sufficient detail and clarity to allow for replication = or, at a=20 minimum, offer the opportunity to build systematically on their=20 findings.

Scientific research is open to the public. A person who claims to = have=20 discovered an effective teaching technique needs to submit evidence for = its=20 effectiveness to public scrutiny. If the results are sound, and the = practice is=20 truly effective, other people should be able to get the same results. = For this=20 reason, SBR must be reported in sufficient detail to allow for=20 replication of the intervention and the scientific findings. = One type=20 of replication involves practitioners reproducing the educational = intervention=20 in their own schools. Another type of replication is more demanding; it = involves=20 another researcher attempting to replicate the original findings by = following=20 the same research procedures. This is an important process because it = allows=20 researchers to independently confirm the legitimacy of purported = scientific=20 evidence. For this reason, scientific research also needs to include all = of the=20 details about the educational intervention, participants, materials, = outcome=20 measures (e.g., tests and questionnaires), and the statistical = procedures that=20 were employed. Vague reporting of methods or results is a red flag, = because it=20 makes it seem as if the authors have something to hide. By the same = token,=20 successful replication of the research from a variety of sources ensures = that=20 the research is truly objective.

Example: In the early 1990s, psychology researchers = published a=20 study in which they claimed that listening to a Mozart sonata = temporarily=20 boosted the IQ of college students. The results of this small study = were=20 reported widely in the popular media, unleashing a torrent of = marketing of=20 classical music as a way to improve intelligence. Subsequent = researchers have=20 precisely replicated the methods of the original experimental, but = have not=20 replicated the findings of increased IQ. For this reason, the validity = of the=20 original findings is highly doubtful.

6. Research that has been accepted by a peer-reviewed journal or = approved=20 by a panel of independent experts through a comparably rigorous, = objective, and=20 scientific review.

The process of peer review is essential to SBR. Many journals of = educational=20 research, such as the American Educational Research Journal, = accept=20 their articles based on the review of other researchers who understand = the=20 research topic. The purpose of peer review is to submit research to = public=20 criticism=E2=80=94to shine the light of objectivity generated by = independent minds. This=20 process helps to screen out poor quality research, especially research = that has=20 serious problems in any of the areas discussed here. A variety of = journals=E2=80=94with=20 varying degrees of stringency of standards=E2=80=94exists, so peer = review is a minimal=20 standard. Yet because it is minimal, its absence is a sure sign that a=20 particular method is lacking in quality (Stanovich & Stanovich, = 2003). It is=20 possible to determine whether a journal is peer reviewed by reading its=20 editorial policy for acceptance of manuscripts. In summary, SBR is = submitted to=20 public scrutiny through peer review, and is replicated by independent=20 researchers. Educators should therefore be wary of programs or practices = whose=20 support comes only from unpublished "in-house" studies conducted by its=20 commercial vendors.

What Falls Outside of the NCLB Definition?

The foregoing criteria define a standard for SBR that focuses on the = question=20 of "what works" in educational practice. It should be noted that there = are other=20 important questions in education for which different research approaches = are=20 appropriate. Some of these questions include "What does a successful = school or=20 classroom look like?" and "What are the risk factors associated with = dropping=20 out of school?" The following research approaches are able to answer = these=20 important questions:=20

Qualitative studies. Ethnographic research, case studies, = and=20 other qualitative designs provide a highly detailed narrative = description of=20 educational settings and interventions. For example, a qualitative = study can=20 describe the characteristics of effective (or ineffective) teachers = (e.g.,=20 Ritchhart, 2002), and thereby promote new pedagogical approaches. = These=20 approaches may ultimately be tested with experimental designs.
Descriptive and correlational studies. The National = Center for=20 Educational Statistics has commissioned many large-scale surveys over = the past=20 30 years. Descriptive studies use these survey data to describe = important=20 trends in education, such as the national rate of progress in = improving=20 literacy and mathematics proficiency. Correlational studies identify = the=20 factors that correlate with important outcomes. These studies help us = to=20 understand the conditions of families, schools, and communities that = promote=20 success in school.

The importance of these methods is discussed further in the section = on Different=20 Points of View.

Evaluating the Evidence Base

We have defined the general approach to SBR and discussed different = types of=20 research questions. We have seen that certain research designs are more=20 appropriate for establishing causality than others. The task of = evaluating the=20 evidence base is more complex, however, than considering the quality of=20 individual studies in isolation. Rather, educators need to take into = account=20 three perspectives when weighing the evidence in favor of adopting a = particular=20 program or practice: (1) the theoretical base of the reform practice or = program,=20 (2) implementation and replicability information, and (3) evidence of = effects on=20 student achievement (Comprehensive School Reform Program Office, 2002). =

Theoretical base. It is important to = examine and=20 understand the theory behind practice. This is the set of guiding = principles=20 behind a program that explain why and how the program works. For = example, a=20 guiding principle behind a science curriculum might be that students = learn best=20 within the context of solving a problem that is intellectually and = socially=20 meaningful to them. A clearly stated theory gives a program greater = coherence=20 because teachers understand how students are supposed to learn and what = purpose=20 the various components of the program serve. For example, when a teacher = understands the theory of direct, explicit phonics instruction, that = teacher is=20 less likely to modify the program in ways that defeat its purpose. = Conversely,=20 with a clear grasp of the theoretically important elements of a program, = the=20 school is able to adapt it to the local circumstances in a manner that = will not=20 compromise the program's effectiveness.

The theoretical base helps to fill in gaps in SBR. Many, if not most, = educational programs do not yet have sufficient research to earn the = distinction=20 of being "evidence-based." Programs that are based on a coherent,=20 well-established theory are far preferable to programs whose theoretical = base=20 has not been substantiated (Stanovich & Stanovich, 2003).

Critical features: In a pertinent publication = (Comprehensive=20 School Reform Program Office, 2002), the U.S. Department of Education = identified=20 the following questions to ask about the quality of the theoretical = base:

Is there a clear, nontechnical description of the central idea and = goals=20 of the practice or program?
Is there a clear description of the instructional activities that = are=20 central to this program or practice?
Is the practice clearly tied to an established learning theory, = for=20 example, child development or language acquisition?

Implementation and replicability information.=20 Certain programs can work better in some situations than = in=20 others. For this reason, local stakeholders must examine whether a = particular=20 program will be successful within their local context. They should look = for=20 evidence that the program has been implemented successfully in schools = that are=20 similar to their own based on a number of factors, such as demographic=20 characteristics (e.g., socioeconomic status, race, locale), student = achievement=20 levels, school size, and teacher experience. The research base itself = may=20 indicate whether a program has been successful in a variety of settings = and with=20 different populations, or whether its success is limited to a narrow = range of=20 conditions. Case studies are very useful to understanding the vagaries = of=20 implementation in great detail. By highlighting critical factors for the = success=20 of a program, case studies often constitute a critical piece of = information in=20 helping schools decide if a program will work for them. It is also = useful to=20 examine statistics on the number of different schools that have fully=20 implemented a program and their settings. In summary, it is important to = understand the circumstances in which a program or practice is most = effective,=20 even if it has a strong research base.

Critical features: The U.S. Department of Education=20 (Comprehensive School Reform Program Office, 2002) has identified the = following=20 questions to ask when judging the quality of implementation and = replicability:=20

How many schools have used this practice or program?
Did the schools using it fully implement the practice or = program?
In what settings has it been implemented?
Has improved student achievement been convincingly demonstrated in = a=20 variety of settings?

Evidence of effectiveness. When it comes to = evaluating evidence of effectiveness, it is most important to keep in = mind that=20 a single study does not provide a "base" of evidence. Any single study = may have=20 numerous flaws in how it controls for confounding variables (although=20 experimental studies are generally the least susceptible to these = flaws). When a=20 practice receives support from several different high-quality studies, = the=20 strength of the big picture overcomes the flaws that any one study may = have=20 (Stanovich & Stanovich, 2003).

Critical features: The U.S. Department of Education=20 (Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy, 2003) has provided guidelines for = a school=20 to judge whether the research base of an educational intervention = provides=20 evidence of effectiveness:

Strong evidence of effectiveness requires experimental studies of = high=20 quality (i.e., studies that meet all the criteria detailed in the = previous=20 section). Moreover, the research must demonstrate effectiveness in at = least=20 two typical school settings (i.e., using regular schools and classroom = teachers), including a setting similar to the school considering = whether to=20 implement the program.
Possible evidence of effectiveness requires quasi-experimental = studies of=20 high quality (i.e., studies that carefully match the treatment and = control=20 groups and that meet the criteria discussed in the previous section), = or=20 experimental studies that do not meet all the criteria for quality. =

These guidelines are presented in detail in A=20 User Friendly Guide published by the U.S. Department of = Education.

There is an additional factor to consider when judging the evidence = base for=20 a particular program. As Robert Slavin (2003) notes, there is a = distinction=20 between a program that is "based on scientifically based research" and = program=20 that has itself been subjected to rigorous testing. For example, a = program to=20 improve reading may consist of instructional components that are = supported by=20 scientific research, such as direct instruction of phonics. Yet, the = particular=20 program itself=E2=80=94as characterized by how it organizes and = emphasizes its various=20 research-based components=E2=80=94might not have been tested. If all = else is equal, it=20 is preferable to look for rigorous testing of the program or practice=20 itself.

Conclusion

Gathering, synthesizing, and using SBR are the steps to making good = decisions=20 about educational programs, products, and practices. Although studying = the=20 evidence base is time consuming, proper consideration of SBR gives = educators=20 greater confidence in their decision making and may lead to greater = opportunity=20 for students to succeed.

3D""=20 GOALS

Decision makers should understand the importance of research. Just = as=20 leaders in business and industry use research to improve their = products and=20 services, so too school leaders should utilize research to inform = their=20 decisions about school programs.
Administrators and teachers should have a grasp on the fundamental = principles of research. This will allow them to understand the = strengths and=20 limitations of the research behind a given school program or product. = It is=20 true that school leaders have neither the time nor training to offer = expert=20 critiques of educational research. Nevertheless, if they understand = basic=20 concepts of research=E2=80=94such as comparison groups, measurement = quality, and=20 replication=E2=80=94they will have the basic vocabulary to comprehend = the critiques of=20 those who are qualified to offer them. This will help school leaders = make more=20 informed decisions about how to select the right programs and products = for=20 their schools.=20

3D""=20 ACTION OPTIONS:

Teachers, administrators, = and=20 policymakers can team together and pursue the following action options = to=20 achieve their goal of using SBR to create the best educational = opportunities for=20 students:=20

Learn and understand the meaning of SBR.
Use trustworthy resources such as the What Works Clearinghouse to = identify=20 SBR that speaks to your local needs (see Resources=20 ).
Form a study group to search for appropriate research that deals = with=20 issues unique to your school. This approach is recommended because the = task of=20 examining research is time consuming. A study group is helpful in two = ways:=20 Group members share the work load, and they diffuse the information = throughout=20 the organization. Educators can expect this process to extend over = several=20 months as they consider the competing claims of different programs and = practices. The study group's activities may include reading research = reports,=20 visiting similar schools that have implemented the program, and even = inviting=20 researchers to explain the program in question (NSDC, 2004).
Ask critical questions about educational programs, products, or = services.=20 Know how to discern quickly whether a program has any evidence of=20 effectiveness or whether it relies solely on the testimonials of a few = schools. Before committing to a program, consider the entire evidence = base=20 behind it: the evidence for its effectiveness, how the program relates = to=20 established theory, and whether it has been successfully implemented = in=20 schools like yours.
Continue to utilize professional wisdom to understand what = programs and=20 practices fit best with your students.
Consider eliminating programs or practices that aren't evidence = based.=20

IMPLEMENTATION PITFALLS: Perhaps the = greatest pitfall=20 to the use of SBR is the paucity of experimental studies about important = topics=20 in education. It is widely acknowledged that an increase in government = funding=20 for educational research is necessary to achieve the goal of = evidence-based=20 education (Committee on Scientific Principles for Education Research, = 2002;=20 Raudenbush, 2002). Therefore, educators who fail to find any = high-quality=20 studies that answer their questions may grow frustrated with the goal of = utilizing research.=20

Due to the federal requirements regarding SBR, many vendors are = touting their=20 products and services as "evidence based." A pitfall is the unwarranted = reliance=20 on inadequate research designs to substantiate these claims. One example = is the=20 pre-post design, in which student performance is measured at some point = before=20 and some point after a school adopts a new practice. The increase in = scores over=20 time does not demonstrate causality because of the lack of a comparison = group.=20 (See Coalition for Evidence-Based Policy, 2003, and Slavin, 2003, for = additional=20 examples).=20

There is likely to be confusion between programs that are based on = scientific=20 research and programs which themselves have been rigorously tested = (Slavin,=20 2003). This distinction is subtle yet important: The individual = components of a=20 program may all be supported by research, but the way that the program = organizes=20 and emphasizes the components may not be supported by research. The = experience=20 of the New York City schools in selecting a reading curriculum is a case = in=20 point. School officials selected a reading program whose major = components were=20 amply supported by research. Yet, in the view of some critics, the = program=20 itself had not been rigorously tested and, therefore, was not=20 sufficiently scientifically based. As a result, the New York City school = district had to switch its reading program in order to ensure federal = funding=20 (Manzo, 2004). Thus, educational leaders must understand this = distinction and be=20 clear about what level of research rigor they need to meet in order to = qualify=20 for funding.

Another pitfall, ironically, is overreliance on SBR. Potentially, a = school=20 can be so swayed by the evidence for the effectiveness of an educational = program=20 that it might fail to verify whether such a program is a good match for = its own=20 conditions and needs. Thus, educators must look beyond the evidence for = a=20 program's effectiveness and also consider evidence for successful = implementation=20 in schools similar to theirs.

Finally, the limited amount of time for educators to study the = research can=20 be a pitfall. Reviewing the research literature is a time-consuming = process.=20 Nevertheless, the up-front investment in finding the most effective = education=20 program will save time in the long run.

3D""=20 DIFFERENT POINTS OF VIEW:

The NCLB legislation excludes research that lacks a comparison group = from the=20 definition of SBR (see What=20 Falls Outside of the NCLB Definition in the Overview section). Some=20 researchers object to this definition, on the following grounds:

Qualitative research: evidence for causality. Some = researchers=20 argue that there are situations in which qualitative research can make = important contributions to a demonstration of causality. The causal = link=20 between lung cancer and smoking, for example, was clarified by careful = examination of the lungs of deceased victims of lung cancer.
Overreliance on experimental methods. Yet another = objection comes=20 from scholars who are concerned that the focus on SBR will discourage = the use=20 of other sources of information, such as case studies, when = educational=20 decisions are made (Erickson & Gutierrez, 2002). These critics = contend=20 that the focus on what works will detract from important questions = such as=20 "What is the intervention?" and "Why does it work?" They argue that=20 experimental studies are conducted in highly controlled environments = that do=20 not always generalize to the dynamic reality of schools and=20 classrooms.
Experimental research is too decontextualized. Another = limitation=20 of experimental research is that it summarizes and averages the = outcomes of=20 many schools, excluding the rich detail about what actually happened = at any=20 one school. As a result, decision making is based on an impoverished = view of=20 the true impact of a program on students and teachers.

In summary, the critics contend that the entire evidence base for a = given=20 practice should be considered, including not only experimental and=20 quasi-experimental research but also qualitative, descriptive, and = correlational=20 studies.

3D""=20 ILLUSTRATIVE CASES:

Actual research studies can illustrate the features of experimental = design=20 that are the hallmark of SBR. The three features are quantitative data, = control=20 groups, and (in experimental studies) random assignment. = (Quasi-experimental=20 studies lack random assignment.)

Experimental Study

Title: "The Effects of Thinking Aloud During Reading on = Students'=20 Comprehension of More or Less Coherent Text"

Purpose: The study was designed to test whether the = effectiveness of=20 think-aloud strategies for reading comprehension depended on the = coherence of=20 the text.

Design: "In order to compare the effects of both coherent = text and=20 active engagement on students' comprehension, we [randomly] assigned = students to=20 one of four conditions. In one condition, students read the original = text=20 silently; in a second condition, students read the original text = thinking aloud;=20 in a third condition, students read the revised text silently; and in a = fourth=20 condition, students read the revised text with thinking aloud" = (Loxterman, Beck,=20 & McKeown, 1994, p. 354).

Data Collection: "After reading the text, students in all = four=20 conditions were asked to recall what they had read and to answer a set = of=20 open-ended questions" (Loxterman et al., p. 356). The authors measured = how many=20 "content units" each participant recalled and scored their question = responses=20 based on model answers.

Table 1. Design Features of the Experimental Study=20
	Present in study?
Design Feature	Yes	No
Quantitative measures of student achievement or performance =	x
Control group	x
Random assignment of participants	x
Note: The authors used a process called stratified = random=20 sampling, which ensures that the randomly assigned groups are = equivalent=20 in their overall reading ability. =

Quasi-Experimental Study

Title: "Fourth-Year Achievement Results on the Tennessee = Value-Added=20 Assessment System for Restructuring Schools in Memphis"

Purpose: This study examined how restructuring schools = compared in=20 student achievement gains to nonrestructuring schools over a four-year = period.=20

Design: The study compared 53 restructuring schools with 23=20 nonrestructuring schools that had been matched on major demographic=20 characteristics or were from the same district (Ross, Sanders, Wright,=20 Stringfield, Wang, & Alberg, 2001).

Data Collection: Performance on the Tennessee Comprehensive=20 Assessment Program (TCAP) was compared between the restructuring and=20 nonrestructuring schools.

Table 2. Design Features of the Quasi-Experimental = Study=20
	Present in study?
Design Feature	Yes	No
Quantitative measures of student achievement or performance =	x
Control group	x
Random assignment of participants (in this case, schools) =		x

Pre-Post Design

A pre-post design examines a particular variable at two points in = time:=20 before and after an intervention. It does not provide evidence about = causality=20 or effectiveness due to its lack of a comparison group, although it = describes=20 what happens after an intervention. Consider the research report that = follows.=20

Title: "Data Supporting the Four Blocks Framework"

Purpose: This report documented the changes in reading and = language=20 arts achievement at several schools that had implemented the Four = Blocks, a=20 model of literacy instruction (Cunningham & Hall, 2002).

Design: For several schools, the study reported average = reading and=20 language arts achievement scores from before and after the = implementation of the=20 Four Blocks. In other words, the study utilized a pre-post design. Table = 3=20 reports the change in achievement at one of the schools; the literacy = model was=20 implemented in the 2000=E2=80=9301 school year. The percentage of third = graders meeting=20 or exceeding state reading standards increased the year following = implementation=20 (Cunningham & Hall, 2002).

Table 3. Results of the Illinois Standard Achievement = Tests for=20 Reading and Writing for Third Graders in 2000 and 2001=20
	Academic Warning	Below Standards	Meets Standards	Exceeds Standards
Reading 2000	4%	38%	47%	10%
Reading 2001	0%	28%	48%	23%

Table 4. Design Features of the Pre-Post Study=20
	Present in study?
Design Feature	Yes	No
Quantitative measures of student achievement or performance =	x
Control group		x
Random assignment of participants (in this case, schools) =		x

3D""=20 =20 CONTACTS:

What Works = Clearinghouse
2277=20 Research Boulevard, MS 6M
Rockville, MD 20850
866-992-9799
http://www.w-w-c.org/

Resources for Locating and Understanding SBR =

The principles provided in this Critical Issue for evaluating = research are=20 useful guidelines that can help identify promising programs and help = rule out=20 those with poor support. However, the process of evaluating the quality = of the=20 research base is highly technical and requires a great deal of skill and = expertise. For this reason, it is necessary to turn to objective expert = sources=20 for guidance.

What Works Clearinghouse. One resource for=20 identifying evidence-based practices is the What=20 Works Clearinghouse (WWC), sponsored by the U.S. Department of = Education.=20 Established in 2002 by the department's Institute of Education Sciences, = the=20 clearinghouse is designed to provide educators, policymakers, and the = public=20 with a valuable source of scientific evidence of what works in = education. Each=20 year (beginning in 2003), the WWC investigates the evidence base for a = set of=20 educational topic areas. These topic areas are chosen to meet the needs = of K=E2=80=9312=20 and adult educators who need to identify effective and replicable = practices. For=20 each topic area, the WWC produces an Evidence Report that makes causal=20 statements about which educational interventions work for achieving a = particular=20 student goal. These conclusions are based on a systematic review of = existing=20 research on the topic.

In Year 1, the WWC will issue a report on each of the following = topics:

Interventions for Beginning Reading
Curriculum-Based Interventions for Increasing K=E2=80=9312 Math = Achievement=20
Preventing High School Dropout
Programs for Increasing Adult Literacy
Peer-Assisted Learning in Elementary Schools: Reading, = Mathematics, and=20 Science Gains
Interventions to Reduce Delinquent, Disorderly, and Violent = Behavior in=20 Middle and High Schools
Interventions for Elementary School English Language Learners: = Increasing=20 English Language Acquisition and Academic Achievement

Scholarly sources. Scholarly, peer-reviewed = journals are a primary source for research about educational = practices.

Research articles and reports describe a single experiment or set = of=20 experiments that address a single research question in education. It = is=20 possible to skim the title and abstract of a report to get a good = sense about=20 the topic, methods, and results.
Review papers are particularly valuable because they attempt to = synthesize=20 the entire research base about a specific issue. A meta-analysis is a = review=20 of several independent research studies that summarizes the overall = strength=20 of an effect for a particular educational intervention. A literature = review is=20 a nonquantitative attempt to synthesize the research base using = narrative and=20 descriptive techniques.

NCREL resources. The North Central Regional = Educational Laboratory (NCREL) has collected many resources to help = identify and=20 understand SBR.

NCREL's Learning Point Spring 2003 = issue=20 has several articles devoted to SBR.
Quick Key = No. 7,=20 "Understanding the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001: Scientifically = Based=20 Research, provides a brief overview of most of the issues = presented in=20 this Critical Issue.
The NCREL Comprehensive = School Reform=20 Web site offers resources to locate and use scientifically based = research=20 about Comprehensive School Reform (CSR) models.
The Resource Center at NCREL provides Rapid Response packets about = many=20 topics in education. These packets are a collection of print materials = on a=20 topic (e.g., block scheduling, classroom management, achievement gap); = they=20 also include a detailed bibliography. They are a good way to build = one's=20 knowledge base about a topic and to learn about educational programs = that=20 address the topic. The packets are sent free to all educators and can = be requested at the = Resource Center=20 Web site.

Comprehensive School Reform . Resources are = available that summarize the research base behind various models of = CSR.

The Research=20 Database on School Reform Models, created by the National = Clearinghouse on=20 Comprehensive School Reform (NCCSR), is devoted specifically to = helping=20 interested stakeholders locate and understand research on CSR model=20 effectiveness. For each model included so far, the database provides = summaries=20 of all the individual studies that have tested the effectiveness of = the model.=20 It also offers a State of the Research Report for each model, which = summarizes=20 the overall research base for the model.
The Catalog of=20 School Reform Models provides a broad overview of all of the major = CSR=20 models. Included in each summary is a description of the research = base.=20

Additional Resources

NCCSR offers a Web-based workshop titled Identifying = Research-Based=20 Solutions for School Improvement that aims to provide educators = with=20 the skills they need to find, identify, and make good use of the best = available=20 educational research.

From the U.S. Department of Education, Identifying=20 and Implementing Educational Practices Supported by Rigorous Evidence: A = User=20 Friendly Guide is "intended to serve as a user-friendly = resource that=20 the education practitioner can use to identify and implement = evidence-based=20 interventions, so as to improve educational and life outcomes for the = children=20 they serve" (p. iii).

A Handbook for Classroom Instruction That Works, a book = written by=20 Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning (McREL) researchers = R.J.=20 Marzano, J.S. Norford, D.E. Paynter, D.J. Pickering, and B.B. Gaddy, = discusses=20 nine instructional strategies that have been demonstrated through SBR to = be=20 effective in improving student achievement across all content areas and = grade=20 levels. More=20 information is available at McREL's Web site.

No=20 Child Left Behind: A Desktop Reference, from the U.S. Department of=20 Education, provides detailed information on federal SBR requirements for = specific programs funded under the NCLB legislation.

A Center on Education Policy publication, From=20 the Capital to the Classroom: State and Federal Efforts to Implement the = No=20 Child Left Behind Act, reports on the first year of a six-year = study.=20 Chapter 5, "Using Scientifically Based Research to Improve Education," = is=20 especially relevant.

3D""=20 = References=20

Adobe = Reader=20 FAQ

Posted: 2004

info@ncrel.org
Copyright=20 =C2=A9 North Central Regional Educational Laboratory. All rights = reserved.
Disclaimer and copyright=20 information.
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Critical Issue: Using Scientifically Based Research to = Guide=20 Educational Decisions